Buying locally produced food

How will buying local help the UK?

• The overall number of food miles for the UK will be reduced, meaning fewer transportation costs and less pollution
• The domestic farming industry will benefit as farmers are selling more crops 

How will buying local be bad for places like Kenya? 

• Farmers will be forced out of business if they are not selling enough crops abroad. This will lead to poverty and farmers will be unable to buy sufficient food. 
• Kenya's economy will suffer because its main trade connection is exporting goods like strawberries. 

Ways we can support local produce:

• Looking at labels in supermarkets, which increasingly give the specific origin of food
• Visiting specialist local shops
• Buying online from 'local' producers
• Supporting local farmers markets
• Attending regional agricultural shows, which celebrate and sell local produce. 

Increasing demand for food

Impacts 

Food miles: The distance that food items travel from where they are grown to where they are eaten.

Carbon Footprint: The amount of carbon generated by things people do, including treating a demand for out of season food. 

Environmental

• People in the UK demand out of season produce and this demand is met by importing food. Transporting food longer distances increases our carbon footprint. We import 1% of our food by air but this accounts for 11% of carbon emissions resulting from transportation of UK food. Importing food contributes to air pollution and global warming because it is flown thousands of miles. 95% of fruit comes from abroad out of season. 
• Often home grown produce is grown using intensification - This involves using machines. growing plants very close together, fertiliser being sprayed on crops and crops growing under plastic. This allows crops to be grown out of season to meet the demand. This method pollutes the environment and uses more energy/ emits more carbon than flying a pack of Kenyan green beans to the UK, which have been produced efficiently using natural fertilisers. 

Environmental degradation caused by farming on poor soils:

• Pressure to produce more food leads to farming on marginal land that is unsuitable 
• Poor quality land becomes poorer
• Poor quality crops are harvested
• No nutrition is returned to the soil
• Soil becomes exhausted 
• Lack of vegetation cover
• Soil erosion - soil is easily washed or blown away 

Political

The river Indus

The river Indus flows through northern India and Pakistan. The flow of the Indus is seasonal. A huge amount of water results in flooding in summer, whereas flows are much less in winter due to seasonal variation in rainfall.

The water is essential for food production. The Indus feeds the fertile Punjab in both countries

In 1960, the Indus water treaty was signed between India and Pakistan. This was implemented because Pakistan was concerned that India could cut off water to Pakistan by building dams and perhaps even diverting rivers in India. The agreement was that Pakistan gained control of the westward flowing rivers, and India the eastward flowing rivers. 

Pakistan constructed dams on the Indus and Jhelum rivers to ensure water supplies. However, as a result there is now resentment in that part of Kashmir in India as people believe that farming and irrigation has been limited due to them being deprived of water that should be theirs. 

Additionally, in June 2006, talks about the Wuller Barrage that India wants to build on the Jhelum River for navigation raised fears about india controlling Pakistan waters.

Social

Cash Crop: Crops grown in order to sell to make a financial profit. 

Lake Naivasha and north of Mount Kenya

Many flowers are grown in Kenya for European supply. This brings many economic positives but has many social negatives. 

• River Ngiro in the north has sections without water.
• Local farmers say the flower growers are taking more water than they should legally and leaving them short
• Fertile land is used for growing flowers are not for food, leading to food shortages
• The Maasai are especially struggling for water to the east and North of Mount Kenya
• Water levels are falling, 20,000 people could be supplied with water that is used by the flowers
• Fertilisers and pesticides contain chemicals which are frequently sprayed on the flowers. This causes rashes and chest problems among workers.
• Some of the fertiliser is washed into soils and seeps underground. Water supplies are then affected by the fertiliser. 
• Population around lake Naivasha increased from 50,000 to 250,000 as people sought work in the greenhouses or in the fields. 

Economic

Rural debt: Money borrowed and now owed by farmers to banks or other organisations.

As farmers produce more crops and make more money there is often the need to intensify production using chemicals. This causes problems as shown by the effects of the borrowing money cycle. 

• Loan to pay for additional essentials. Increased debt due to need to buy seeds and chemicals
• Fertilisers and pesticides bought
• Fertilisers and pesticides applied
• Higher yields
• Cash Crop sold - poorer farmers can't compete
• Pay back
• Poor farmers lose their land because they cannot afford to pay money back. They are unable to buy sufficient food. Farmers are often forced out of business

Ways of reducing the costs of globalisation

Local Initiatives

The phrase 'Think Globally, act locally' indicates the need for individuals and groups to seek to reduce pollution and take responsibility for this. Reducing the use of resources not only increases their life, it also reduces pollution and energy in pollution. Reducing energy in production helps to reduce costs of globalisation by reducing the amount that is produced by companies. 

We can seek to seize the initiative by conservation and recycling, and therefore reducing waste and the need to landfill. This also reduces costs. 

Conservation

Conservation can involve simple things like turning off lights and appliances when they are not being used, filling a kettle with only the water that is needed rather than to the top and buying reusable carrier bags. 

Recycling

Local authorities provide a variety of recycling containers for paper, cans, glass, plastic, cardboard and garden waste, and many encourage composting in an attempt to reduce waste thrown in bins. This in turn reduces the amount of waste that is put into landfill. By 2015, the government wants only 35% of waste to go to landfill sites. 

Carbon Credits

• Countries that come under the emissions target (by 2012) will be rewarded by receiving carbon credits which they can sell to countries that aren't meeting their emission target. Carbon credits represent the amount of greenhouse gases they are allowed to emit. 
• Countries that help poorer countries reduce their emissions can earn carbon credits. This is good because it means that poorer countries reduce their emissions quickly. 
• Additionally, carbon credits are an incentive for poorer countries to reduce their emissions because they can trade carbon credits for money to develop their economy. 

The importance of international directives on pollution control and carbon reducing initiatives

Why is co-operation needed between countries around the world?

Air pollution does not stop at international borders and therefore cooperation is needed between countries worldwide if air quality and global warming issues are to be effectively addressed. 
E.g: The earth summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 marked the first real international attempt to cooperate to reduce emissions. Richer countries agreed there would be no increase in emissions. 

Timeline of international directives

Earth Summit - Rio 1992

First real international attempt to cooperate to reduce emissions. Richer countries agreed there would be no increase in emissions. 

Kyoto protocol 1997

Agreement for the industrialised countries to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 5% below 1990 levels between 2008 and 2012
The treaty became legally binding in 2005 - enough countries responsible for 55% of the total emissions signed. By August 2011 there were 191 signatures. 

Bali Conference 2007

New targets established to replace those agreed at Kyoto. No figure was decided but there was a recognition that there would need to be 'deep cuts in global emissions' 

Durban Conference 2011

A legally binding deal was agreed. This comprised of all countries, including USA, China and India. It will be prepared by 2015 and take effect in 2020. 

Achieving sustainable development through renewable energy

Why are renewable energy supplies a sustainable alternative to fossil fuels? 

Renewable energy supplies are a sustainable alternative to fossil fuels because they will not run out. However, fossil fuels are only short term and supplies of coal, oil and natural gas are limited. Hydroelectric power, solar, tidal and wind power are sustainable options that can be used for generations. 

Wind Farms - Positive and Negatives

Current aims: To generate 10% if power by renewable energy sources 

Aims for the future: Offshore wind farms to become more important, with 8GW to be generated by 2016. 

Location requirements: The shallow waters off the coast of the UK are an advantage. Wind farms require an exposed location, whether on shore or offshore, clear of any obstructions (e.g buildings). Small differences in distance can mean a real difference in the potential of the site. For example, a site that is 10% less windy means 20% less energy. 

General opinions for:

• The energy produced does not cause greenhouse gases or other pollutants 
• Wind turbines are tall, but only take up a small plot of land
• Sea turbines can attract fish and have no long term affects on sea life
• Wind turbines can be used to produce electricity in remote areas that are not connected to the national grid. 

General opinions against:

• Noise levels are measured at 35-45 dB for a distance of 350m
• Research suggests turbines are avoided by migrating birds
• House prices nearby may reduce
• The cost of generating electricity is more expensive than traditional methods. It is more than double per Kw per hour. 
• Turbines are an eyesore.  

CASE STUDY: Barvas Moor, Isle of Lewis

• Amec and British energy are proposing to build 250 turbines
• They will output 600 mW

Opinions For:

• It is a clean, safe, renewable source of energy that will produce the equivalent of half the current output of Torness nuclear power station in East Lothian. 
• Wind farms create jobs and it would reap economic benefits for the remote community of Lewis

Opinions against:

• It will be noisy and ugly, ruining the mountain scenery on the isle of Lewis
• Barvas Moor has a unique wildlife habitat that would be destroyed. Birds would be disturbed.
• In order to be efficient the power generated would have to be sent to big electricity markets in England. This means laying power cables along the sea bed of the west coast which would be extremely expensive. 

Social, economic and environmental impacts of increasing demand for energy

Benefits:

Social

People may choose to travel to work using a different method of transport in an attempt to be environmentally friendly and fitter. 

Where people go on holiday could be affected if air fares increasing substantially because of rising fuel costs. More people could choose to holiday at home which may benefit the home economy. 

Problems:

Social

Increased energy use has an impact on people's health. For example, in Industrial areas where coals is the basic source of energy, there has been an increase in lung related diseases like emphysema and bronchitis. The incidence of these diseases will increase in areas that are experiencing industrialisation today. For example, the UK. 

The droughts and floods caused by climate change can lead to famine, disease and homelessness, which can take years to recover. 

Poor air quality from coal and smoke can lead to asthma and other respiratory diseases. 

Environemental

Spoil heaps have built u adjacent to coal mines and when unneeded material has been dumped.

The transportation of oil has led to major pollution incidents such as the Exon Valdez oil spill off Alaska in 1989.

Some cities are shrouded by a haze that blocks out the sun and contains a dangerous mix of chemicals, including those from coal and smoke and ozone. E.g smog in Beijing. 

Greater use of fossil fuels is increasing CO2 emissions and driving climate change. This is leading to changing weather patterns (e.g more floods, drought, hurricanes) as well as environmental changes. 

Political

Some countries rely heavily on others for their energy supplies which can create problems if they fall out. For example, much of Europe depends on a gas pipeline from Russia than runs through Ukraine. But in both 2006 and 2008, the pipeline was turned off after disagreements between Russia and Ukraine. 

In some countries like the USA, political parties are funded by oil and gas companies, which means that these countries can influence government polices. 

The causes of the increasing global demand for energy

World Population growth

The world's population has increased rapidly over the last 100 years from 1.65 billion in 1900 to 5.98 billion in 1999 and is predicted to be as high as 8.91 billion in 2050. 

People now have access to washing machines, fridges, tumble dryers, dish washers, microwaves, television, computers and mobile phones, but this has not always been the case. As more and more people are using and buying these items, more energy is required to operate them and in their manufacture. Therefore as population increases our demand for energy increases. 

The rapid rise in the populations of Asian countries combined with their economic growth also accounts for the increase in energy use. For example, China uses a lot of energy to manufacture cheap products such as mobile phones. 

Increased Wealth

As people become wealthier they demand more products and consumer items, such as electrical devices. These goods use energy not only to operate them, but also in their manufacture.

E.g: The average wage in China has risen to 1750 yuan a month, four times higher than in 1995. This allows people to buy luxuries to make their lives more comfortable, and people desire to own goods such as computers, televisions or cars. As a result, private car ownership in China has increased from virtually zero in 1997 to 26 million in 2009. Cars not only use energy to operate, but require a lot of energy in their manufacture, so increasing personal wealth increases our demand for energy. 

Technological Advances

Technological advances have supplied is with increasing amounts of energy and a wide variety of good we can purchase. For example, the development of steam using coal led to large scale production in the UK. The use of coal in power stations has fuelled the Chinese economy. 

Modern technology allows the development of other sources of energy. E.g Nuclear power
Resources in the sea and in very inhospitable regions can now be exploited, E.g the Antarctic. 

Research and development has become a big business. Companies strive to produce smaller cameras, faster laptops and the most innovative games. These goods require energy to develop, make, and operate. Increasing numbers of people are buying these products, and companies are producing new products as a result. Increasing technological advances means our demand for energy has increased. 

China Case Study

Reasons for China's rapid growth

Whilst parts of Europe have experienced deindustrialisation, China has seen a significant growth. China has now been dubbed 'the new workshop of the world' a phrase that was first used to describe Britain during the 19th century. 

• During 1985-2005, around 20-25% of high tech manufacturing was produced in the EU. Below 5% of high tech manufacturing was produced in China between 1985-2001. China then started to grow and 5-11% was produced during 2001-2005. 
• 60% of the world's bicycles are produced in China
• 72% of the world's shoes are produced in China
• In 2013 China overtook the USA to generate the world's largest industrial output. 
• China is the world's largest exporter

Reasons for China's growth

Government legislation

• In 1977 Deng Xiaoping sought foreign investment to help end China's isolation land stimulate economic growth. 
• Between 1980 and 1994 Special Economic Zones were set up to encourage businesses into China. They often had advanced factories set up in the zones and tax incentives such as reduced tax rates were used to attract more businesses. 
• The One Child Policy, which was introduced in 1979, meant that the population level was much lower than it would have been and people's desires changed. There was an increased demand for electrical household goods, air conditioning, cars and computers. 

The home market

• China's large and increasingly wealthy population (per capita income in urban households was about £600 in 2001, having rise to just below £200 in 1993) offer much potential, as do other asian pacific areas. China's urban population is around 500 million people. 
• Increasing numbers of people with more money means they can buy more things. This creates a greater demand for chinese products, the the industry produces more as a result. 
• China's massive home market will continue to grow.

The Olympics factor

• The 2008 olympics were held in Beijing. This provided China the perfect opportunity to showcase the nation.
• The opening ceremony, based on the theme 'One world, One dream' was important in an attempt to convey China as an open, friendly country and important, integrated, positive part of the world in the 21st century.
• The prestige of hosting the games and the image portrayed was immensely important in stimulating further foreign investment. 

Energy

• Industrial development on a large scale demands large resources of energy. China currently generates two thirds of its electricity at coal fired power stations. 
• Many new plants are being built.
• Hydroelectric power accounted for 7% of electricity in 2006. China produces more HEP than any other country in the world and is keen to develop new sources of energy. 
• The Three Gorges Dam - biggest dam in the world, generating 22,500 MW when fully operational. 

Labour

• Cheap labour is a key reason why the economy has been thriving. Wages are 95% lower than in the USA. This means TNC's will have lower costs and therefore greater profits, which makes China a more attractive place to locate a factory in. 

Aviva call centre case study

Improvements in ICT have enabled large TNC's to relocate their call centres to countries such as India, South Africa and the Philippines where costs (e.g. wages and land rates) are lower are therefore they can make more profit. Due to improvements in education levels, many more in these countries have the ability to speak english and the skills to work computers. They can therefore do the same work for less than British call centre workers. 

Call centres are offices where groups of people answer telephone queries from customers. Employees use a computer to give them information that helps them answer questions. 

Aviva

• 30000 aviva employees currently work in call centres
• Aviva's UK call centres are located in: Perth, Bishopbriggs, Norwich and Sheffield. 
• Aviva also have a call centre in Bangalore, India, employing 1000 workers. 
• Aviva are relocating some call centre jobs to india as it is 40% cheaper to employ call centre workers in India, meaning the company can employ more people to increase efficiency. Operating costs are between 10 and 60% lower than the UK. The new call centre will give the groups UK general insurance business extra flexibility and capacity. 

Advantages of Aviva

• Aviva will bring much needed money into the Indian economy and will create thousands of jobs in Bangalore (1000 workers by the end of the year)
• Aviva will develop Bangalore by bringing in technology and knowledge that it did not already have. For example, improvements in ICT like computers

Disadvantages of Aviva

• A fifth of all call centre jobs in the UK will be outsourced to India by 2010. This will leave tens of thousands of workers in the UK out of work.
• The company will most likely take its profits back to the UK, meaning there will be little benefit to Bangalore's economy. Therefore the company could be seen to be exploiting workers - they are paid low wages of £1200.

Why is India attractive to UK companies?

• It is cheaper to employ call centre workers in India, meaning companies can afford to employ more people and increase efficiency. For example, Estimated costs are 40% cheaper than the UK. Average salaries for Indian call centre staff are £1,200 compared with £12,000 in the UK. 
• Operating costs like land rent and cost of energy are between 10 and 60% lower than the UK. 
• Developments in ICT allows cheaper, quicker and clearer communication from India to the UK.
• About 10% of the population (around 100 million people) speak english fluently. Of the 787 million people living in towns, about 80% are literature and 18% of these are graduates. This provides a relatively skilled workforce for companies wishing to employ a large workforce. 

What are the concerns raised by Amicus about this offshoring of call centre workers? 

Amicus are concerned that too many UK jobs are being lost because companies are moving call centres to areas with low employment costs. They imply that this is because the UK government have imposed tight regulations of the insurance sector, so TNC's now want to move to areas where there are:

• No regulations of the insurance sector
• Low employment costs
• Tax benefits

This promotes maximum profits and minimal cost for the companies. 

Motorsport Valley Case Study

Improvements in ICT and transport have allowed immediate access to people all over the world and fostered development in small areas, knowing that communication across the world is possible. This has led to a cluster of world famous companies associated with motor racing to locate in an area called Motorsport Valley. 

Motorsport valley is located between Northampton and Oxford in the southern part of the British Midlands. 

Motorsport valley employs 40,000, 25,000 of which are world - class engineers. There are 2,200 businesses located there. The annual sales are £6 billion, but 60% of sales are exports. 

Key businesses located in Motorsport Valley:

• Aston Martin Lagondo 
• Cosworth
• Force India One 
• Fortec Motorsport
• Lotus renault 
• Mercedes AMG
• Prodrive
• Red Bull racing 
• Ricardo
• Williams F1
• Silverstone
• Heathrow airport
• Luton airport
• Birmingham airport

Industrial regions such as Motorsport valley have grown due to advancements in technology and infrastructure. The internet has allowed factories and headquarters to have rapid, clear communication across the globe. The Motorsport valley has grown because it is close to major motorways, E.g the M40 and M1, and airports such as Heathrow airport, Luton airport and Birmingham airport, which allow for the east transport of goods and people out of the area.

Furthermore, it is close to major areas of population, E.g Birmingham which ensure a large workforce and market. 

Additionally, Motorsport valley is close to universities for research and development and skilled graduates to work for the companies. For example, it is close to Oxford and Cambridge universities. 

ICT and transport developments

Improvements in ICT and transport have increased the rate of globalisation. In particular, they have been responsible for the spread of manufacturing and services worldwide.

Communication that has enabled companies to operate worldwide:

• Phones: These allow calls and telephone conferencing. Businesses may use this when they have audio portions for participants to listen to - it may be combined with cameras
• Fax machines: Often the preferred method of communication for businesses and organisations. Faxes can be sent over a wireless connection.
• Computers - The internet: Email, social media, instant messaging can be sent anywhere in the world. Businesses and organisations usually use an inside provider to set up accounts for their employees, clients and other personelle. 
• Video conferences: ideal communication for global businesses.

Much of the advances in communication are the result of developments in satellites. A satellite is an object that revolves around the earth following a particular path or orbit. They are built for specific purposes, e.g weather or communications satellites. The media is dependent on satellites for television, particularly transmitting live TV. This means that communications such as live video conferencing and calls have been made possible by the developments in satellites. In this way, communications have largely improved, leading to the spread of manufacturing services worldwide. 

Additionally, development of submarine cables have been important in allowing operations for both manufacturing and service industry. These underwater cables link western Europe with south - east Asia, The middle East and Australia, providing high speed of data. 

Transport methods used by Lee Cooper Jeans:

• Horse
• Vans for delivering goods within the UK
• Ships for supplying international goods. E.g from Frankfurt to Milan
• Planes for supplying international goods. E.g from Benin to Tunis
• Lorry
• Channel Tunnel

Over the last 50 years each form of ICT has improved. Communication as well as transport has become quicker, cheaper, able to do more and used by more people in more countries around the world. How do improvements in transport help countries like Lee Cooper to have offices and factors located in different countries around the world? 

• Improvements in transport help link together the producers and consumers easily. 
• Advancement in air technology allow company officials and managers to visit factories and offices in different parts of the world within a matter of hours. As air travel is now used by more people in more countries around the world, companies like Lee Cooper can now access easily countries such as Tunisia and Namibia ( developing countries) 
• As transport such as Air travel and Sea travel has become cheaper, it is now more cost effective for companies such as Lee Cooper to have factories and offices located in parts of the world where there are tax incentives. (E.g Benin) This tends to increase the companies profit, because producing goods in developing countries decreases costs (Profit = revenue - costs).
• Quicker transport links also mean people are able to travel more, making it more favourable to have head offices in developed countries like England, but factories in poorer countries where companies can claim tax benefits. Managers are able to easily travel back and forth between the two countries. 

Deindustrialisation

Why are some products no longer manufactured in the UK?

The manufacturing industry has declined in importance in some regions, while it has become more significant in others. Areas like the EU have seen a decline in manufacturing, but countries like China and other developing nations have been increasing. 

In 1981 there were 6 million people employed in manufacturing in the UK. This fell to just 2.49 million in 2010. 

This occurred as a result of deindustrialisation in the UK: 

A process of decline in some types of industry over a long period of time results in fewer people being employed in this sector and falling production. 

Reasons for growth in areas such as Tunisia and China: 

Government Legislation

• Growth has been encouraged by enterprise zones - areas where conditions are favourable for new industry, attracting companies. E.g lower taxes
• Buildings for production are built in the hope they will encourage businesses to buy/rent them. 
• High educational standards have been encouraged to ensure a skilled and educated workforce to attract investment.

Reasons for decline in areas like the UK:

• A minimum wage has been introduced which has encouraged TNC's to locate factories elsewhere where costs of labour are lower. For example, the minimum wage in the UK is £6.08 per hour for those aged 21+. However, in Tunisia the minimum wage is 47p.
• A maximum number of working hours has been introduced - although the UK has separate agreements with the EU, we have a tradition of working around 37.5 hours per week. In the UK, the average hours worked in a year is 1,652 but in Tunisia the average is 2,100. 

Health and Safety regulations

These vary considerably. The more regulations in place, the more likely an organisation will locate elsewhere as regulations tend to increase the cost of production. 

Rights for workers in the UK:

• Know how to do their job safely and be trained to do it.
• Know how to get first aid
• Know what to do in an emergency
• Be supplied with protective clothing

However, health and safety regulations do not exist in some poorer countries. This has encouraged growth of industry in these countries. 

Benin

In Benin, farmers use insecticides and fertilisers to help their crops grow on degraded soils. However, there are little to no health and safety regulations and people are dying as a result. During last year's cotton season in Benin around 100 people died after using the pesticide endosulfin. Despite the chemical being banned in some wealthier countries, TNC's like Itadenim are still forcing cotton farmers in Benin to use the toxic pesticide endosulfin.

Prohibition of strikes

Countries that have regular strikes are likely to put off businesses as this will slow down production. In countries like Tunisia, where 900 at the Lee Cooper are members of a union, there is a Trade Union but the TNC's often have more power than them. They can simply employ another worker if they threaten to strike. 

A strike is a period of time when large numbers of employees refuse to work due to disagreements over pay or other grievances. 

Tax Incentives and Tax free zones

The government often offers grants to businesses to encourage them to locate factories in particular areas (E.g the north east of England). Countries like Dubai even offer tax free incentives to new businesses. 

What have the UK government done to try and persuade businesses to located here?

The government have tried to perused businesses to locate by providing tax incentives which seek to offset costs. For example 'One Northeast' (the development agency responsible for the north east of England) offered job creation grants, business rate or rent free periods to help in preparing a business plan. 

Transnational Corporations - Lee Cooper Jeans Case Study

Lee Cooper Jeans is an example of a Transnational Corporation (TNC). A TNC is a corporation that operates in more than one country. 

Lee Cooper is a large, wealthy international country. It has its headquarters in England (a rich area of the world) but has many other branches and suppliers all over the world. Production occurs in poorer areas of the world: The jeans are sewn together in Ras Jebel, Tunisia. Ras Jebel is home to a skilled workforce, with each person producing over 2000 garments a day. Tunisia a poorer country with lenient health and safety laws; there are no safety guards on machines in the factory and Indigo dye is washed out into the environment. 

The relaxation of laws has allowed Lee Cooper Jeans to invest in foreign countries such as Tunisia, Namibia and Italy. The relaxation of laws has also increased the provision and speed of international transport and developments in communication with the use of fax, telephone and email. Together, these allow Lee Cooper Jeans to operate globally. 

Advantages of TNC'S

• Trained machinists in Lee Cooper Tunisia receive 58p an hour which is low but above the legal minimum of 47p an hour. 
• Companies such as Lee Cooper bring much needed money into the country. The local economy benefits from the company and business. For example, Namibia thrives off the copper industry, providing mostly for TNC's
• Lee Cooper has helped to develop Tunisia by bringing in technology and knowledge that it did not already have. For example, there are now spawned textile and sewing courses at the local college in Ras Jebel. Furthermore, the city has advanced technologically as the company has brought computers and other means of communication. 
• Lee Cooper has helped to develop transport links around the world. There are now links between Tunisia and Milan, Turkey, Benin, Northern Island, Hungary, Japan and France. 
• Lee Cooper has created jobs for the local population of Ras Jebel, as well as jobs in the factories that supply to Ras Jebel. For example, 500 women work in the Lee Cooper factory in Tunisia. 
• TNC's offer consumers the best deal possible. Consumers want the best value and big businesses like Lee Cooper are able to give it to them. E.g LC jeans in England are only £19.95
• TNC's allow people in developing countries to buy consumer goods that they would never have been able to buy in the past. For example, women in Ras Jebel are no longer wearing black cloth and have moved onto jeans thanks to Lee Cooper. 
• In Benin, farmers earn more by providing cotton than farming for subsistence. 

Disadvantages 

• Trained machinists receive 58p an hour which is below the Tunisian garment industry average of 92p an hour. 
• Some companies have been accused of exploiting the workforce rather than benefitting it. Usually there are tax incentives for Transnational corporations to locate in developing countries. Most TNC's take their profits out of the country, meaning there is little benefit to the developing country. For example, cotton farmer Zinkponon made just £15 profit from one and a half tonnes of cotton. 
• Transport links such as planes or boats to Milan, or travel links to Turkey only serve the direct needs of Lee Cooper and not the wider area as well. 
• Many multinational companies have very poor records on pollution and worker safety. In the Lee Cooper factory in Ras Jebel, there are no safety guards on the machines and women are at risk of pounding there finger with a needle. Companies try to cut corners with both safety and pollution in order to keep costs down. The factory in Ras Jebel washes out indigo dye into streams and rivers, where it blocks out the light in the water and kills plants and fish. 
• TNC's are footloose and may move their operations out of a country at any point in search of lower wages and cheaper production elsewhere. This creates economic uncertainty within the host country. For example, the mine closure in Namibia, Africa.
• Working conditions in factories are poor. Workers only get 15 minute toilet breaks. 

What is globalisation?

The increasing links between different countries throughout the world and the greater independence that results from this. For example, Nike has offices and factories throughout the world. 

Countries involved with the production of Lee Cooper Jeans

Milan, Italy - Supply denim to factory in Ras Jebel, Tunisia. 
Frankfurt, Germany - supply synthetic indigo used to dye the denim to factory in Milan Italy. 
Turkey- Supply pumice (used to make the material soft and wearable) from an inactive volcano to Ras Jebel, Turkey.
Benin, West Africa - Supply cotton used to make the denim to factory in Milan, Italy
Japan - Supply Polyester fibre and brass wire to Ras Jebel, Turkey. This brass was originally from Australia and Namibia, and then sent to Japan. 

Countries are becoming more Interdependent. What is meant by this?

This means that they are forming relationships usually in terms of trade with other countries. This has been made possible by the relaxation of laws, allowing foreign investment in countries - this has encouraged the rise of Transnational corporations, the increased provision and speed of international transport and developments in communication with the use of fax, telephone and email. 
For example, the UK is dependent on Tunisia to supply Lee Cooper Jeans to their shops.

How has globalisation made countries more interdependent?

Global trade is the result of uneven distribution of materials and resources - no single country has everything it needs and so countries need to trade with each other. For example, MEDC'S like England import low value goods from developing countries like Tunisia. However, most of the valuable trade happens between developed countries such as England and America. 
For example, Lee Cooper Jeans produce their goods in developing countries (E.g Tunisia, Namibia and Benin). However, they then deliver the Jeans to England. In this way, Globalisation has made countries more interdependent because they have formed trade relationships with each other. 

Lampedusa Case Study

Lampedusa is an italian island located 70km of the Tunisian coast 

• By June 2011 between 15,000 and 40,000 immigrants resident in refugee camps
• Immigrants mainly travel from Tunisia and Libya 
• Thousands of immigrants sent to camps on Italy 
• Many instances of violence, arson and rioting occurred in the refugee camps
• Around 1600 immigrants have drowned in overcrowd boats trying to make the journey 

On 3 October 2013, a boat carrying immigrants sank close to the island. The boat originated from Libya, however most of the occupants were originally from Eritrea, Somalia and Ghana. The italian Coast Guard rescued 155 survivors and the death toll is estimated to be more than 360. 

Following this and other incidents the italians led Mediterranean - wide search and rescue patrols to assist in intercepting and rescuing migrant boats although this was later halted due to funding issues. 

In April 2015 

• five boats sank in the Mediterranean Sea with death toll of more than 1,200. 
• boat from Libya heading to Malta carrying 850 sank leaving only 28 survivors. 

Refugees in Europe

What is the difference between a refugee and an asylum seeker?

A refugee is someone who has been forced to leave their own country in order to escape war, persecution and natural disaster.

An asylum seeker is a refugee who has not yet proved what they are escaping from and that they are a genuine case.

An international migrant has a choice to migrate whereas a refugee is forced to leave the country. 

• Germany, Italy and Greece accepted large groups of refugees when former Yugoslavia split apart in the early 1990's 
• Large groups of Armenians migrated to France
• Spain and Italy have been traditional 'stepping stones' for North Africans coming to Europe
• The UK has recently accepted refugees from Pakistan, Libya and Zimbabwe
• 130,000 refugees sought asylum seeker status in the first 6 months of 2011

The political status of refugees

An international agreement on the rights of refugees was signed in 1967 by 147 countries. Refugees were divided into two groups: economic and political refugees. In 1967, a new set of guidelines on refugees was drawn up. However, in recent years many states have become concerned about accepting new waves of refugees. They have taken steps to protect themselves by various means; reducing financial benefits, reducing the quality of social services and speeding up the quality of asylum seekers claims and setting up detention centres to hold asylum seekers while there cases are being investigated. 

The Canary islands

The Canary islands, Malta, Ceuta and Melilla are all close to Africa and have relatively good transport links due to the short distance. They are easy to access because they are offshore of Africa and are between Africa and Europe. The Canary islands are located south - west of Spain and are close to the north west of Morocco in Africa. These islands are seen as a gateway to Europe because of the fairly short distance. 

The EU

The European Union is to some extent a product of the guilt and fear caused by the second World War and the hope that something like that could never happen again by bringing everyone together. Freedom of movement was enshrined in the Treaty of Rome in 1957 and is seen as benefitting economic and social growth within the union. 

Positive effects 

• In particular the freedom of the unemployed to move elsewhere for work can improve their own lives financially, relieve their home countries and help those countries with decreasing birth rates that would otherwise have serious issues with a decreasing workforce. 

Negative effects 

• Can be a threat to security and public safety and can aid the mobility of terrorists
• Encourages poor and unskilled migration that is not good in the medium to long term  as the migrant labour often does not contribute enough to pay for the additional infrastructure need. (infrastructure deficit)
• Over time can fundamentally alter the demographic, political and cultural nature of the host country
• Causes problems when member states have differing levels of wealth, health care and social care
• Can result in poorer countries paying to educate workforce, only for another country to then benefit from those skills. 

Migration from outside the EU

Europe currently receives over 2 million immigrants from beyond its borders a year. The ration between current population and immigrants is higher for Europe than for the USA. European population is changing more in age and racial structure due to immigration than by changes in birth and death rate.

About 9.4% per cent of the EU's people are foreign born, compared with 10.3% in the USA and almost 25% in Australia. 

Africa and Asia are the major sources of immigrants. 

Migration within the EU

There are two categories of migrants within the EU:

those moving between countries and those coming in from beyond the borders. 

Wealthier countries usually receive immigrants searching for work and a better lifestyle.

Poland and other Eastern European countries joined the EU in 2004. Since that date, many people have moved temporarily or permanently to the UK and other western EU countries for work. 

E.g There are 545,000 Polish passport holders living in the UK compared with 75,000 in 2003, the year before Poland joined the EU. 

Labour Migration

Cheaper travel and more information attract skilled and unskilled labour to Europe. Many EU residents would like the flow of migration to reduce, but the UN predicts that immigration into the EU will rise by 40% over 40 years. Immigration is a subject of political debate in all EU countries. 

• Spain's immigrant population grew by 400% in 10 years in the early 21st century.
• Italy expects 100,000 Romanians in the years following Romania's joining of the EU.

Europe needs immigrants because of its falling birth rate and the resulting lack of workers. Highly skilled workers often come to the EU to take temporary jobs in areas of shortage such as teaching, nursing and high tech computer jobs. Around 20% are graduates. 

Impacts of international migration

Economic

Migrants workers often send money back to their country of origin to help their families. This means the money leaves the host economy - a disadvantage - but the country of origin can benefit enormously

Housing

Finding accommodation can be difficult for migrants in the UK. Some have been helped by social services and this causes resentment from UK citizens who feel they are being treated as second class citizens in their own country. Demand for housing has grown immensely in the UK during the early 21st century, fuelled by high levels of migration. The demand for housing is greater than supply, so property prices quickly rose in the early 2000s and immigration has contributed to this. 

Labour and skills

Migration brings labour and skills, and the economies of the UK and the EU have grown asa result. Most migrants are more successful than they would have have been at home, however some are less fortunate. Tragedies have occurred when gang masters, who often control large numbers of workers in agriculture and shellfish harvesting, have been negligent. E.g, the death of 23 Chinese cockle pickers in February 2014. 

Social 

Too many immigrants can be a burden. Schools taking immigrant children may be under pressure. However, cultural mixing is seen as a positive, as long as racial prejudice does not become a problem. 

Positive impacts

Social

• Cultural mixing is seen by many to be good and bring diversity to the UK
• Important to alleviate the falling birth rate and risk of falling dependency ratio 

Economic

• Immigrants have helped fill vacancies (often low paid or in care) where there are labour shortages or where british people do not want to do the work. 
• contributed to economic growth including paying tax
• brought professional skills where there is a shortage in the UK

Negative impacts

Social

• Language difficulties that cause issues and often a burden for the education, law enforcement and social sectors
• Placed an increased burden on housing and social services when there are already shortages and problems with overcrowding
• Criminal gangs often from the migrant countries are exploiting immigrants.
• Tensions are often raised between different cultural and religious groups

Economic

• Some argue that it has kept down wages and deprived British workers of jobs and allowed people to live a life on benefits on the basis that there is no work for them
• Many work in the informal economy, working for cash and not paying any tax
• Place an increased burden on already stretched NHS, Education, social services and justice resources
• Migrant workers often send much of the money they earn back to their families in their country of origin so that the money does not benefit the UK's economy.

Push and Pull factors that have encourages Poles to come to the UK

Push Factors:

• Poland joined the EU in May 2004 giving them the automatic right to come and work in the UK
• Poland has a population over 2/3 the size of the UK but is much poorer with a GDP of just over $500 billion compared with $2.5 trillion in the UK meaning there are fewer job opportunities
• Unemployment levels are over 20% in Poland and job Security for those in work is poor
• There are many graduates in Poland but very high skilled jobs for them to go into

Pull Factors

• The UK has an abundance of low paid work which many hard working Polish people are willing to come over and do
• The benefits system in the UK means people are sometimes happier to claim than work meaning that there are jobs available for Poles prepared to work for relatively low pay
• The UK is close to Poland and there are very good transport links
• Average pay in the UK is significantly higher than in Poland
• The UK has the NHS and a generous benefits system compared to most other EU countries
• There is some affinity between the two countries given that were allies in the war and there is already a Polish community established in the UK after WW2.

Japan Case Study

Japan is an example of a country that has implemented a Pro Natal Policy. Japan has a low birth rate and a low death rate, placing them in the fifth stage of the transition model. Japanese women have an average of 1.34 children, one of the lowest rates in the world and below the 2.8 needed to replenish the population. Japans population is ageing and there is a very high life expectancy. If the birth rate continues to stay low, the population could start to decline so the government have introduced pro natal laws in which parents can receive:

• 8 weeks paid leave from work
• Shorter working hours
• A maximum of 24 hours overtime a month
• Economic incentives: e.g the toy company Bandai is offering employees 1 million yen to have a third child and the same for each subsequent child
• Child allowances
• Larger families can get discounts from certain shops
• More time off to have a child 

The policy hasn't been successful; birth rates only rose by 0.14% between 2005 and 2013.

France Case Study

How has France responded to the issue of an ageing population? 

France has a birth rate per 1000 of 12.3. This is well below the global average of 19.95 per 1000 which could ultimately put a strain on the dependency ratio

In view of this, the French government has introduced various pro Natal policies.
This includes:

• Three years of paid parental leave 
• Free full time schooling at age 3
• Subsidised day care for the children under 3 
• Better pension provision the more children a woman has

In 2000, birth rate increased to 12.6%

Aging population

Why is the UK's population ageing?

• As with many developed Western countries the UK has a declining birth rate due to families having fewer children. This could be due to several factors, including the emancipation of women and children becoming an economic disadvantage. As levels of educational achievement increase, the standard of living improves and children become an economic burden. This means parents are having less children so they can spend more money on each one and giving them better future chances. The UK is expanding its opportunities for girls so women are participating in more paid work outside the house. Having a career requires a large time commitment so women have less time to care for children and many women don't have children or have them later on in life One in 5 women in the UK today is childless, compared with one in 10 in their mother's generation. The UK birth rate is still above replacement rate within its migrant population. 
• Life expectancy is increasing and it has done for many decades meaning that the UK has a slowly ageing population and potential for decline in the working population. This is due to the development of routine vaccinations making people less vulnerable to disease and advances in medical research and technology meaning we can deal with illness more effectively and we know more about how to prevent it from spreading. 
• As a country, we have a much wider knowledge of how to lead a healthy life in particular die to more information on food labelling and more information in the media about healthy living. 
• The babies born in the baby boom period just after the Second World War are now reaching retirement age, by 2021 19% of the UK population will be pensioners. 

Problems caused by an elderly population 

Health care

• The demand for healthcare increases because more illness occurs in old age, for example elderly people will need hip replacements.
• Elderly people are more prone to accidents, such as falling, which outs pressure on the ambulance service and hospitals
• The Elderly visit their GP more often. 
• They have more hospital appointments and spend more time in hospital than younger or middle aged people. The government has to find more funding to support older people and this comes from the taxation of present workers. 

Social services

• Elderly people need other services such as nursing homes, day care centres and people to help them to care for themselves at home. These special needs put financial pressure on a country particularly in times of austerity when cutbacks are being made. 

The pensions crisis

• Life expectancy is higher and increasing with the average life expectancy in the UK in 2012 being 81.50 years for women and 79.5 for men
• People receive pensions when they retire for the rest of their lives. This can mean some people receiving pensions for 20 years or so even though 2 years was the average period when pensions were introduced. 
• More and more people are receiving a pension, placing a heavier burden on those working and paying taxes. This can be more problematic where the number of elderly people is increasing disproportionately to the number of people working. 

Opportunities/ positive impacts of an ageing population 

• Younger retired people are relatively wealthy and contribute to the economy spending money on travel, recreation and services. For example, they have more time on their hands so are travelling more and regularly use gyms. 
• Many retired people pay taxes on their investments and pensions
• Many elderly people continue to work due to the necessity or to keep active and contribute to the economy and pay taxes. They can often bring a wealth of experience to their roles. 
• Many elderly grandparents provide free child care so that their children can go out to work and contribute to the economy.

Transmigration in Indonesia

Location?

A Cluster of 17,508 islands in Southeast Asia between Australia in the south and China and Japan in the North

Why is it necessary? 

Indonesia is the fourth most populous country in the world but has a very uneven distribution of its population. It's population grows at a rate of just over 1% per year. 60% if 246.8 million population live on central island Java and there is a risk of it being overpopulated. The western Java population density is 1k to 2k per km squared, whereas across the island chain less than 100 per km is common. 

What is transmigration? 

In 1969, in an attempt to redistribute the population, the Indonesian government embarked on an ambitious project called transmigration. The involved encouraging people to move form densely populated islands such as Java to the more sparsely populated outer islands, such as West Papua. 

Financed by the World Bank and the Asian Development Bank, transmigration continued through the 1980s but recent financial difficulties and changes in government have led to the policy being scaled down. 

What incentives were offered? 

• 2 to 4 hectares of farmland on freshly cleared forest
• A basic wooden house
• A basic supply of food to cover the period before the first harvest
• Basic farming tools
• Seed supplies for the first harvest
• Fertilisers and Pesticides for the first three years
• Free transportation to the sites
• The provision of infrastructure for the community including roads, schools and clinics. 

How many people moved?

• Around 5000 were moved in and around 1975 to the plantations on Sumatra. Between 1975 and 1984 almost 2.5 million people were moved.
• In 2006, approximately 20,000 families took advantage of the programme
• By 2010, about 250,000 families wanted to move but the government was only able to sponsor 10,000 families. 2000 families were moved following the eruption of mount Merapi. 
• In total, the policy has resulted in the resettlement of approx 20 million people. 

Positives:

• Population pressures in the major cities such as Jakarta would have been much worse if transmigration had not occurred.
• Many participants have experienced an improvement in their quality of life and standard of life
• 3 out of 5 sponsored projects became thriving villages with a broad range commercial, social and cultural activities. 
• Settlers incomes higher than expected and above the poverty level
• Up to 95% of settlers described themselves as very satisfied with their current situation
• Provided a new start for families displaced after the eruption of Mount Merapi in 2010
• Settlers ranked lower fees and access to education for their children as most important benefit. 

Negatives:

Social

• Confrontations have arisen between the transmigrants and the indigenous population who have resented the arrival of newcomers leading to violent clashes and hundreds of deaths. 
• Traditional land rights were often ignored to favour the new settlers
• Indigenous population has also been displaced to make way for oil palm development 
• Transmigrants lacked the basic knowledge to farm their land effectively 

Economic

• Resettlement was extremely expensive, costing $7000 per family
• The policy has simply redistributed poverty throughout the islands rather than eliminating it on the main islands. 
• Due to poor skills and transmigrants being placed on unsuitable land, such as peat forests and tidal swamps, they have not been economically self sufficient. 
• Settlements poorly planned with, with few roads, shops and services such as water, sanitation and electricity. 

Environmental 

• Huge deforestation has occurred with over 50 million hectares of rainforest lost 
• Over cultivation and poor agricultural practice has lead to an increase in soil erosion and loss of soil fertility. 

Political 

• Policy seen by many as a way for the government to tighten national security and assert more control on the indigenous people of the outlying islands